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RESEARCH APPROACHES

A number of approaches to research are possible, and for many issues a range of approaches is needed. Such approaches include:

Each method is briefly described below.

In addition the issue of commercial versus non-commercial research has been raised with the Committee. The Committee received evidence, in the context of differences in regulatory responses according to whether research was `commercial' or `non-commercial', suggesting that there were "few pure examples of non-commercial research". The view put was that while, for example, some museum and university research could be considered as `non-commercial' (such as taxonomic research), most would not:

Universities often apply for scientific permits to take animals from the wild for drug investigations, thus avoiding a high royalty for commercial use ... They often carry out research and sell the IP [Intellectual Property Right] they develop.136

As has been previously described, public sector and university research often consists of pure research or orientated for application for an industry sector, with the results generally placed in the public domain. The contribution by private-industry research to the knowledge of native flora is acknowledged by many. However, it seems that much of the research results are not in the public domain, but bound by commercial in-confidence restrictions.

Adaptive Management

Adaptive management has been described as `learning by doing'. It involves:

It is one response to the lack of realism of research isolated from practical management, the need for long-term studies and pressure to initiate utilisations before everything is known in relation to them. Ideally adaptive management should take account of institutional and socio-economic factors as well as ecological ones.

The Senate Inquiry, in recommending that "the Federal Government investigate the possibility of an experimental management trial (of replacing traditional stock with native wildlife in marginal grazing land)" was advocating an adaptive management approach.138 Others have also advocated this approach, believing that lack of detailed information about a species should not be used as an argument against the commencement of commercialisation on a trial basis".139 The trial then provides the knowledge needed to improve management.

Adaptive management has been advocated for wild-harvesting:

As circumstances and knowledge continually change all wild harvesting and use of wildlife should be managed adaptively.140

A problem with the approach is that, once utilisation has commenced, it is difficult to terminate it, even if trials indicate that this should happen. A second problem that can arise is that even trial utilisation may have an unacceptable impact in some cases. This is most likely in fragile ecosystems, with rare species or where utilisation has impacts that are hard to detect.

Amateur and Semi-Professional Research

Several submissions drew attention to the valuable role that amateur and semi-professional individuals and groups can play in increasing knowledge of native plants and animals.141

Amateur naturalists can and do contribute to knowledge of native flora and fauna. They may contribute basic information on the distribution and abundance of species, as well as on more complex ecological relationships. Amateur naturalists may also be able to provide such information for remote areas not otherwise readily accessible by professional researchers.

Such contributions may be substantial - it has been estimated, for example, that the contribution of amateurs to our understanding of Australian reptiles is around 20 per cent.142 The value of non-professional research is acknowledged in the Senate Inquiry Report.143

Members of specialist groups of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria have contributed substantial information to scientific research and conservation planning, much of which is published. Members of the Club of Victoria have, for instance, collaborated over many years with Dr R. Parsons of the Botany Department at La Trobe University (Bundoora Campus) to prepare a database of the distribution of Victorian flora.144 Members of the Latrobe Valley branch have been consulted regularly for advice, upon which the declaration and planning of floral reserves has been based over many years. 145

Amateur researchers consider that current regulations are unnecessarily restrictive and seek their modification to make it easier for amateur naturalists to undertake research and also support to assist with the collation and interpretation of this research.146

Issues for amateur research can be difficulties in insuring that information is collected in a rigorous way and in coordinating the research.147

Community-initiated Research

There is a continuum between amateur and professional research. This is exemplified by two organisations that made submissions to the Inquiry - Birds Australia148 and the Dolphin Research Institute.149

Birds Australia (the trading name of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union) is a not-for-profit organisation of professional and semi-professional bird enthusiasts. It is "involved with and manages a number of major research ... projects".150 These include surveys undertaken by members. The organisation also publishes the scientific journal Emu, which focuses on the results of research into birds, their life cycles, behaviour, ecology and conservation.151 Through its activities, Birds Australia encourages research on Australian birds, dissemination of information based on this research and increased community interest in birds.

The Dolphin Research Institute grew out of community interest in dolphins in the waters near Melbourne.152 This led to the formation of the Institute, which is now an `Approved Research Institute' for taxation purposes (donations to the Institute are deductible). It focuses on both research and education and it taps community support in terms of funding and logistic support. As an example of the latter, its researchers actually travel on dolphin-tour boats to study the impacts of these tours on dolphins. The institute also offers `summer scholarships' to new graduates to provide them with experience in research.

According to the Director, the Dolphin Research Institute's practice of providing information on dolphins and their habitats free of charge is a reflection of its focus on its primary objectives. These are best met by ensuring the widest possible dissemination of the Institute's findings.153

The Dolphin Research Institute is financed by a number of private sponsors and donations. It believes that community support for other research on native species could be tapped with limited government encouragement.154

Applied Research

Applied research is aimed at dealing with a specific practical issue. The Committee observed such research during its inspection tours of Israel, South Australia and the Institute of Horticultural Development - Victoria. Issues concerned included:

Basic Biological Resources Survey

Despite the relatively small size of Victoria, and some 200 years of European study and 40,000 years of Aboriginal experience, the distribution and indeed identification of many groups of plants and animals are still poorly known. The number of species for which detailed ecological and biological research is available is limited, even for native mammal species.

With respect to potential utilisation of native species, biological resource surveys may use existing surveys of plants and animals but would have a different focus; that is their concern would not be on simply identifying what is there, but what resources for sustainable human use can be identified

Collaborative Research

Collaboration between researchers and research institutions promotes efficiencies and permits the multidisciplinary teamwork commonly needed in relation to utilisation of native species. As was outlined above, the Cooperative Research Centres promote such collaboration, as it was found that collaboration `value-adds' to individual research.

Collaborations between industry and research bodies ensure that research addresses the needs of industry, while ensuring that the results of research are communicated effectively to the potential user. Such collaborations put the resources of industry at the disposal of the researchers. This may involve funding, but equally importantly may include equipment, materials and data records.

Sharing of facilities by several research bodies increases the opportunities of each. Even more important is the pooling of intellectual resources, information and ideas.

During its study tour to South Australia, the Committee learnt about the very successful collaborations based on the Waite Institute (which is part of the University of Adelaide) and the South Australian Research and Development Institute (which is a business group of the South Australian Department of Primary Industries and Resources). This model of collaborative research is based on researchers from different bodies working together at a single location - the Waite Institute provides a purpose-built precinct on which research and policy staff of the CSIRO, the government department and the University of Adelaide are co-located.

The advantages of this model are that it has produced a culture of cooperation and enables the location of research staff and facilities on the basis of project rather than employer organisation and thus facilitates effective collaboration and efficient use of staff and resources.

Another model is that of the CRCs, as previously described, which brings together researchers for joint research projects, but at multiple locations.

Informal collaboration is very common. This is a response to common interests and objectives. It is often the outcome of workshops, conferences and similar opportunities for research workers to meet and share interests.

Approaches to funding used by organisations such as the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation also recognise the value of collaborative research. The requirement of some of these funding bodies that those seeking support obtain collaborators also promotes collaboration.

An issue that may arise, however, is that collaboration can conflict with the desire of one organisation to retain all the commercial benefits of its work. CSIRO has described how it deals with this by ensuring that clear contracts are entered into at the beginning of a collaborative venture.155 It is an issue that can, nonetheless, inhibit collaborative research.

Interdisciplinary Studies

Interdisciplinary studies are often needed to identify the potential of native species or their extracts for various uses. For example information on species biology, ecology, toxicology, nutritional value, market potential and social impacts may be required. A research team may ideally require input from economists, marketing experts and rural sociologists as well as scientists. These other disciplines are needed to ensure that applied research programs are practical in terms of economic sustainability and relevance to the circumstances of land managers.

The Committee noted several examples of the need for multidisciplinary research during its study tours. Plant breeders, agronomists and marketing experts were all engaged in the development of new strains of native ornamental plants at the Waite Institute.

For example some plants, including soil micro-organisms, appear to have developed chemical repellents which protect them from attack by insects. The mechanisms involved are not known but could provide a lead to powerful insect-repellent chemicals. Disciplines which would need to be involved in developing this utilisation would include soil science, biochemistry, microbiology, toxicology and entomology. Examples such as this suggest that collaboration between various branches of ecology and the disciplines more conventionally engaged in plant breeding, pharmacology and biochemical research could be profitable.156

International Cooperation

The Committee learned, during its study tours to Israel and the Netherlands, that more development and production of cultivated cut flowers using Australian species is done in Israel than in Australia. The cultivars developed reach the European market, largely through the Netherlands. It is difficult for Australia to compete for access with these countries because of their proximity to the market.

Primary Industries and Resources South Australia (PIRSA) has decided that, rather than attempt to compete, a collaborative approach can be used. Department representatives explained to the Committee that the Department is negotiating a collaborative venture with private enterprise in Israel to export native Australian plants to Europe. Australian expertise and plant diversity (on the basis of royalties) are the products being exported.

A similar approach might be used by other States. The Committee considers that, for this approach to be successful, there must be good cooperation between States. Many native species are not confined to one State and it is essential that overseas interests not be given the opportunity to play one Australian State off against another.

Another approach identified by the Committee was the use of memoranda of understanding. The Committee was briefed on the memorandum of understanding between the Victorian Department of Natural Resources and the Environment and the Jewish National Fund (the major land manager in Israel) and noted the potential and mutual advantages that such two-way relationships offer.

Pure Research

Pure research is most commonly undertaken by institutions such as universities, and at least in the first instance, is mostly of a non-commercial nature. While often highly specific, it can and does lead to an array of applied applications. Such research may be reliant on access to wild or captive/cultivated populations.

Feeding and social behaviour and reproductive biology research is often undertaken on captive populations but nonetheless "can be enormously informative when attempting to understand the ecology of wild populations". Ultimately, however, wild populations must be studied if they are to be understood and managed. "The more we learn about our ecosystems the better equipped we are to manage and preserve them".157

Research utilisation of wild populations of wildlife may take many forms, including:

Simple observation, capture and release, radio tracking, the establishment of permanent captive colonies, and occasionally the removal and killing of animals from the wild.158

An example of the usefulness of fundamental research is the research into the structure of organic chemicals. The fundamental research identified molecular structure that is associated with biological activity. Screening identified other chemicals with similar structure and therefore a likelihood of similar biological activity.

Researcher-Industry Partnerships

At the first Australian `New Crops' Conference in 1996 it was noted that:

It takes a long time to develop a totally new crop so we need to plan for both the market place and the farming technology ... and find ways to shorten the development period. 159

One suggested response to this issue, a suggestion supported in various forms by a number of speakers at the conference, was:

A partnership between farmer and researcher [as it] has the potential to cost-effectively develop a relevant production technology and to short-circuit the traditional extension phase, bringing the crop to the market sooner. 160

This approach has, in effect, been applied through Landcare groups. The Warrenbayne Boho group, in partnership with the (then) Department of Conservation and Environment, developed a demonstration/research program on the property of one of its members. Such an approach can help to address the issue raised above of tapping farmers' experiential knowledge.

Similarly, land managers can be the repositories of much useful information gained through their day-to-day experience. The value of this experience to provide information directly and to suggest fruitful lines of research is often overlooked.161 The Committee considers that better mechanisms for tapping this information are needed.

According to the National Ecotourism Accreditation Program, an efficient approach to establishing research priorities and gathering together existing information, is for the interested agencies and organisations to provide seeding support for an initial scoping workshop.162 The workshop would bring together industry, government agencies and research organisations. This coordinates existing knowledge and identifies those areas of research that are most needed and will provide the best returns.

This approach has been used with considerable success by the Co-operative Research Centre for Tropical Pest Management and Queensland University, CSIRO and various other CRCs.163 A recent workshop, `Domestic Markets Revealed', was organised in Melbourne by Tourism Victoria with several other Melbourne-based tourism organisations. This workshop pooled information on the domestic tourist market in Australia and used it to provide direction to the tourist industry. Many of the RIRDC research programs have also successfully used the workshopping approach.164

A variation of such approaches is that of the consultative program which brings together staff of Fisheries Victoria, DNRE's regional management and Biodiversity Branch staff, the Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute and representatives from the Victorian recreational fishing peak body, VRFish.165 This group's activities include collation of information and making recommendations concerning stocking and management of recreational fishing resources.

Scoping Studies

Research on potential new uses of native species involves risk. It is inevitably long-term and costly. Consequently those responsible for research and development funding increasingly assess potential industries for their likely chance of providing a direct return to the community.166 Use of assessments or scoping studies can assist in ensuring that funding is well targeted. Research and development needs are often multi-disciplinary, requiring consideration of social, political, economic, physical and biological factors.167

The Committee noted that scoping studies are an effective tool for identifying the most efficient projects in which to put major research and development effort.168 They reduce the risk of wasting research and development resources and of failing to provide the support needed to initiate new industries with real potential for success.

These studies can be relatively inexpensive and undertaken rapidly. They depend mainly on existing data to provide information on factors such as the likely success of a new industry or information deficiencies limiting the industry. Such studies ideally involve the survey of relevant industry members or potential members and other stakeholders and indicate what research and development is most likely to achieve benefit-cost ratios greater than one.

An example of such scoping research is the RIRDC's `New Crops Study'.169 This study used industry-supplied information to determine those factors that inhibit and assist the success of new industries. Results clearly established the importance of research and development and also indicated the nature of research needed.

Scoping studies have been used by the RIRDC to identify where future major research effort can most profitably be undertaken.170

Statistical Information

A key factor in the successful funding and targeting of research programs is the availability of current and reliable statistical information on the industry itself: its size, value and products. Without this information it is very difficult to analyse trends, to justify research expenditure and to determine where research efforts should be directed.

Most sectors of utilisation do not, however, have a well-developed system for the ongoing data collection be implemented that uses accurate and uniform definitions of product categories.

The Committee notes that a research and development levy on native-flower exports has been proposed by some in the industry. Imposition of such a levy would necessitate better disaggregation of data based on the State of origin, quantities and types of flower exports from Australia. As noted by a recently completed report by the Cut Flower and Nursery Industries Regulatory Reform Task Force, through the Office of Regulation Reform, Australia is one of the few developed countries that do not have statutory reporting requirements for its cut-flower and nursery industries. The Task Force reported that the Nursery Industry Association of Australia has been working with the Australian Bureau of Statistics to develop an industry reporting census form. The report suggested that:

industry associations, in conjunction with the Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, give consideration to the development of a census form and identify an appropriate agency for the collection of data.

Traditional Information

Indigenous Australians supplied all their day-to-day needs from native plants and animals. Consequently they can provide the first line of information on their potential uses in present-day society.

A vast amount of information on the use of plants by Koori people has been collected and analysed by the Department of Biological Sciences, Monash University.171 Similar information has been collected by researchers in other States.

A mechanism to ensure that traditional knowledge is documented and securely stored is needed.

Issues Concerned with the Research Approach

The Committee notes that there are benefits to be gained from a diversity of research approaches. At the same time, it has already drawn attention to the desirability of focussing research effort on those areas where a need for information has been identified or utilisation of native species has most potential for success. Yet the Committee also notes that overly directed research is likely to miss valuable information. Balancing the need for focus and efficiency with the potential of less-restricted research may prove difficult, especially where research funding is restricted.

Information gathered in isolation from commercial-scale utilisation may not reflect accurately the ecological impacts of utilisation. Furthermore, long-term studies are often needed to determine the ultimate effects of utilisation, which can be complex and unexpected. For these reasons it is difficult to delay every utilisation until all the necessary information is available.

The adaptive management approach may offer a solution to this difficulty, but is not always applicable. Setting up a commercial-scale operation may be expensive and incur the risk of undesirable impacts that need to be assessed before any production commences.

The close alignment of policy-makers and industry with researchers appears to be a critical success factor of the South Australian and Israeli approach to research. Such an alignment also has the benefit of ensuring that research is targeted to achieve the most efficient use of resources. The level of commitment and the application of resources to such approaches seem to the Committee to be somewhat lower in Victoria. There appears to be a range of mutual benefits to be gained from the fostering of such close collaboration.

Finally, the Committee recognises that research is only effective if it is communicated in a useful way to those who need to use it.172

COMMUNICATION OF RESEARCH INFORMATION

Rural research and development corporations such as the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation and the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, as well as some other research bodies (for example CSIRO) are developing communication strategies or plans. As yet only a few have been put in place and their effectiveness has not been tested.173

Approaches to communication that are likely to be effective vary with circumstances. Research undertaken by a small group that literally lives in, and is part of, the community can rely on good communication networks between researchers and the community.174 This approach may be relevant for small and emerging industries such as those based on native species. However, effective communication cannot be taken for granted and will need more formal management for larger research institutions.175

Some characteristics of effective communication have been identified. These include:

At present major barriers to effective communication of scientific knowledge are seen to be:

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