Microbiota
Emphasis is often given to the flora and fauna that are visible to humans - the vascular plants (ferns, gymnosperms and flowering plants), the larger non-vascular plants (liverworts, mosses and some groups of algae), vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals), arthropods (such as spiders and insects), worms, molluscs, and echinoderms (such as star fish). The State's microscopic biota - algae, protozoa, fungi and bacteria, while often less recognised, are vital to the functioning of natural ecosystems. They are intimately associated with nutrient transfer and energy flows.
Microbiota include prokaryotic organisms (bacteria and the very small, single-celled blue-green alga) and eukaryotic organisms (other single-celled biota or biota without differentiated tissue cells) such as protozoa and fungi.
Such species largely make up the plankton and phytoplankton from water bodies, and are important components of soil biota. They are very different from more complex forms of living organism and are thus of special interest to researchers and have a significant role to play in an array of utilisation activities.
The potential of complex organic chemicals produced by the vast array of micro-organisms is investigated through processes termed `bioprospecting'. As was outlined in Chapter 3, there are two main companies undertaking such bioprospecting in Australia, one of which is in Melbourne. Micro-organisms, as well as plants, from around Australia and South-east Asia are screened through a range of high-tech bioprospecting methods.
Microbiota are currently used for:
k) chemicals in pharmaceuticals;
l) new enzymes and genetic material for agricultural and medical use;
m) bioremediation of polluted habitats;
n) biological control of weeds and pest animals;22 and
o) recycling of natural and waste materials.23
The potential expansion of such uses and their value is great. An example of such potential is a newly discovered micro-organism reported in the press early in June 1999.24 The micro-organism was discovered, by a CSIRO researcher, in a herbicide-polluted site in Western Australia. It is a new strain of a common soil organism, Pseudomonas. According to the press reports, the organism has three unique genes that enable it to digest a highly toxic and soil-persistent pesticide (atrazine, and possibly others) that is used widely in agriculture. This ability has wide application to dealing with spills and residues in contaminated soil and ground water. Atrazine is used around the world and the discovery has worldwide application.
Some of the fungi with large fruiting bodies, for example mushrooms, are also wild-harvested or cultivated for use as food. Many of Victoria's indigenous fungi are cosmopolitan species, that is they are found naturally around the world. These include the common field mushroom and the `champignon' mushroom, both of which are edible. Many of the indigenous fungi that are found only in Australia are also edible or have pharmacological properties of potentially commercial application.
Sector Challenges
AMRAD Discovery Technologies raised a lack of awareness of the potential of microbial resources as an issue of importance.25 This company is concerned that potential microbial resources could be destroyed, as habitats are lost. It pointed out the paucity of taxonomic information available, the likely high number of endemic Australian biota, and the prospect of genetic resources being transferred elsewhere, including via soil and plant samples taken out of Australia.
Difficulties of regulation of microbial use were also raised by AMRAD. Such difficulties may arise both because the position with regards ownership of genetic material is unclear and because of the lack of basic taxonomic knowledge about Australian microbiota.26
Venom Supplies
The venom supply industry is a small but important sector. It is dominated by two businesses - Venom Supplies Pty Ltd (based in South Australia) and the Australian Reptile Park (based in Queensland).
The sector produces venom and various venom fractions (such as neurotoxins and anticoagulants), as well as antibodies for use against these purified toxins. Venom is used for antivenom production and medical research and diagnostics. Blood serum and purified toxins are used for biochemical research and production of antibodies.
The venom is extracted from captive stock of reptiles and spiders. Venom Supplies Pty Ltd obtains its reptiles and spiders from both captive-bred and wild-captured animals:
Venom Supplies Pty Ltd keeps about 300 snakes at any one time and while some species are economic to breed, others and in particular brown snakes (Pseudonja spp.) are impracticable to breed but are easily sourced from the wild.27
On occasions animals obtained in Victoria are acquired for purposes such as venom-yield research.28
The major producer of antivenom for Australian poisonous animals is CSL Limited, a Melbourne-based national pharmaceutical company. CSL Ltd produces species-specific antivenom for a number of venomous snakes and spiders, as well as for ticks, the box jellyfish, and stonefish. Polyvalent antivenom, for all Australian and Papua New Guinean snakes, is also produced (released in 1992). The Company produced the first commercial antivenom in 1930 (for tiger-snake poisoning).29
Sector Strengths and Challenges
The industry is vital to the production of antivenoms and thus the well-being of Australians. Research into improved and new types of antivenom has been successful and is ongoing.
Access to animals for venom supply is a continuing need, but time consuming, even for quite common species.
As a national industry, the level of regulation covering the import and export of animals and products across State borders is said by those involved to be exasperating. An example provided by Venom Supplies Pty Ltd of the time that was taken to acquire a common species (caught in urban backyards) from a licensed snake catcher for use in research is indicative of the industry's concerns:
We wanted to acquire 10 tiger snakes ... so we could carry out venom yield studies with this species. This information is used for calculating the antivenom vial size, which is critical in any snakebite treatment. ... I applied to the Victorian authority on 23 October 1998. [After] numerous e-mails ... [and] telephone calls ... the permit was finally issued on the 5th February, nearly four months later.30
The level of regulation and the more recent requirement of some States for royalty agreements are, according to Venom Supplies Pty Ltd, the two major impediments facing the sector.31
Taxidermy
There are 23 licensed taxidermists operating in Victoria,32 most of whom conduct owner/operator businesses. A number employ licensed assistants.33
A large part of their business is the mounting of game species for individuals to use as display items. Such game species include native waterbirds and, to a lesser extent, quail. Game birds make up approximately a third of the total number of animals mounted by two of Melbourne's larger taxidermy businesses.34 Specimens and skins of native species, such as fish, pest animals and birds, and animals from fauna parks are also processed.
Private owners of prepared or mounted specimens of native fauna require a licence under the Wildlife Act 1975 to process animals, other than game birds, deer and a small number of common birds, frogs and reptiles.
Issues
Hunters travel around the world in pursuit of hunting opportunities and a significant percentage of such hunters seek to retain some form of trophy, usually a skin or mounted specimen, prepared by a taxidermist. There are some 80 species of game waterbird in the world and mounted specimens of each are sought for collections. While specimens can be mounted in Victoria, unlike New Zealand, the USA, and South American and African countries, these cannot be exported to an overseas hunter's home country. This is because Victoria does not have a management program in place that has been approved under the Commonwealth legislation governing the export of native animals and their products.35 The Australian Taxidermists Association argues that the export of sport-hunted game trophies is an effective utilisation practice and should be permitted.36
Live-animal Trade - Wholesale
With three exceptions, the harvesting of native animals from the wild is not permitted in Victoria. The exceptions are galahs, cockatoos and long-billed corellas. These may be harvested and sold by a small number of licensed `commercial wildlife controllers'.37 Consequently, the commercial live-animal trade sector consists primarily of breeders and traders.
The domestic market supports a small number of commercial breeders of captive-bred native birds and reptiles. The breeding of birds is a long-established industry; the breeding of reptiles is an emerging industry.38
Australian birds are bred overseas - in the United Kingdom (parrots), New Zealand (galahs), and Tanzania (galahs) - for the international market.39 Long-neck tortoises are also bred overseas.40 Under current export laws, the export of live birds and, indeed, any animal from Australia is very much restricted.
The international market for live animals is huge - most international live-animal trade is in fish (500-600 million), followed by reptiles (5 million), birds (2 million) and primates, that is monkeys (25,000-30,000). A large proportion are captive-bred but wild-harvesting still occurs in many countries for many species. Given that the market value in overseas markets is generally higher than that in Australia, the potential for an export market is large (and actively sought by many, but not all, in the industry).
Sector Opportunities and Challenges
There is an established commercial avicultural industry in Victoria (albeit much smaller than, for example, Western Australia). The domestic market has been suffering over-production and prices have been falling,41 but the potential export market is large. Australian breeders have access to unique genetic resources, have high avian health standards and can produce in more spacious enclosures in the natural conditions than overseas competitors.
Existing export restrictions and public opposition to changing these restrictions due to concern about exploiting native animals, welfare aspects of transporting animals, and potential impacts on endangered species, are constraints for the sector.42
Pet and Aquarium Trade - Retail
Any pet shop may sell a limited range of defined species of captive-bred native wildlife, without need for a special licence or record keeping. The defined species are the king quail (Coturnix chinensis), budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), zebra finch (Poephila guttata) and cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus).
A much wider variety of species can be sold by licensed wildlife dealers, of which there are currently 47 in Victoria (November 1998 figures). A licensed wildlife dealer can trade in most, but not all, of those species that can be kept by a private licence holder. In all, some 16 mammal species, 114 birds, 102 reptiles and 21 amphibians can be commercially traded in Victoria.43 Not all of these are found in the wild in Victoria.
The domestic market is very large. More than a million Australian households have birds as pets, and it has been estimated that over $150 million a year is spent on them.44 While some of these birds are exotics, the proportion of native species is substantial.
The pet market for reptiles and amphibians is much smaller - with the common long-necked tortoise (Chelodina longicollis), blue-tongued lizard (Tiliqua spp.) and the green tree frog (Litoria caerulea) perhaps the most often stocked (the latter is not found in the wild in Victoria).
The market for other species of reptiles and amphibians, and for mammals, is much more limited.
The number of native freshwater fish species sold, if any, in pet shops is not known.
The wildlife dealer or pet shop is required to advise the purchaser of wildlife whether a private wildlife licence is required to keep the animals and also provide printed information (as approved by the Department of Natural Resources and Environment) that outlines "the requirements for the proper feeding, care, housing and welfare of the species".45
Pet shops acquire the majority of their stock from breeders, many of whom may be amateur breeders (operating under a normal private wildlife licence) - see the section on aviculture below.
