ECOTOURISM AND NATURE-BASED TOURISM
In the past, the term `ecotourism' has been used as, in effect, a marketing slogan covering any sort of activity vaguely related to the natural environment.40 The tourism industry now advocates the use of more narrow definitions of `ecotourism'.
The Committee understands that ecotourism is a niche within a broader sector of `nature-based tourism'. It contains a higher educational component and involves the local community to assist in the care of the resource.41 The National Ecotourism Strategy (1994) defined ecotourism as:
Nature-based tourism that includes an educational component and is managed to be sustainable.42
As defined above, the use of the term ecotourism is thus restricted to those activities that genuinely include elements of environmental appreciation and education as well as being undertaken in an environmentally sensitive manner.
In response to this more restricted use of the term `ecotourism', the term `nature-based tourism' has evolved and is gaining more general usage. It is used to describe tourist activities that make use of natural environments but do not involve an overt environmental message.
In the opinion of Tourism Victoria, few of those operating nature-based tours within this State would currently meet the more restrictive criteria applying to ecotourism. Ecotourism has been assessed as accounting for only 5 to 10 per cent of Australia's domestic nature-based tourist activity, though with much higher levels in regions where there is a focus on the intrinsic values of outstanding natural features.43
Ecotourism is considered to "offer the potential for higher growth ... and less environmental impact than the [broader] nature-based segment as a whole".44 The Bureau of Tourism Research considers that the potential for further growth of domestic ecotourism is quite large.45
Ecotourism is one of the key areas on the United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development agenda, and the Year 2002 has been declared the United Nations Year of Ecotourism. It is now a recognised sector of the Australian tourism industry, with an active industry association, the Ecotourism Association of Australia, promoting, through publications and conferences, an exchange of information and ideas.46
An array of other organisations is promoting and developing nature-based tourism and ecotourism programs, both in Australia and internationally. Examples are:
e) the World Wide Fund for Nature Travel Club;
f) university-based travel programs;
g) the Australian Conservation Foundation; and
h) the Pacific Asia Travel Association.47
There appears to be an increasing desire among nature-based tourists to learn about and protect the natural resources that they enjoy. A 1994 Newspoll survey of holiday intensions of Australians found that more than 50 per cent of those interviewed included `enjoying nature' among their intended holiday activities.48 Of those planning a `nature holiday', more than 90 per cent considered `not damaging the environment' as important, over 80 per cent rated `getting close to nature' as important and almost as many were concerned to learn about nature.
These interests have been confirmed by a recent Australia-wide survey by Tourism Queensland. The survey questioned people who had taken a holiday away from family and friends in the last 12 months. It indicated that more than 60 per cent of those surveyed had some element of ecotourism in their interests and attitudes. The survey supports the view that there is "enormous potential for the development of ecotourism among Australian residents".49
Elements of ecotourism are becoming mainstream in much of outdoor tourism within Australia. According to Preece et al. in their report to Environment Australia's Biodiversity Group, the whole tourism industry in Australia is "changing rapidly, and ... elements of nature-based and ecotourism can enter into all segments of the tourist market".50 It is not only changing rapidly, but it is also growing rapidly. Currently it is estimated that there are more than 700 nature-based tour operators in Australia.51
These Australian trends mirror those elsewhere in the world. While in Zimbabwe, the Committee noted that scenic boat trips on the Zambezi River are being marketed as wildlife cruises, with operators ensuring that visitors see wild crocodiles and hippopotamuses as an integral part of their experience. Indeed one tourist attraction inspected by the Committee is based on a single specimen of one plant - an ancient baobab tree estimated to be about 1,000 years old, with a circumference of 17 metres. The Committee is also aware that a grove of huge mountain ash trees in the Cumberland Valley, east of Melbourne, is of tourist interest, with one particular ancient mountain ash at a separate site, the Adeney Tree, being promoted as a tourist destination in its own right.
Ecotourism programs do not need to be based on minimal facilities and guided tours of remote undisturbed areas. While guided and unguided tours of natural areas may have low dependence on facilities, they may nonetheless be facilitated by the presence of defined tracks, toilets and interpretative information. Other forms of tourism business, particularly those targeting large visitor numbers, rely on major infrastructure - to provide associated facilities for merchandising, hospitality and entertainment. The physical presence of such facilities may have an obvious localised impact. However, where these hazards are minimised, such facility-based ventures may meet the requirements of ecotourism accreditation. 52 They may also provide access for visitors in a manner that can reduce the otherwise potentially substantial impact of large numbers of people.53
Industry Strategies and Accreditation Schemes
States are developing a range of ecotourism policies and programs. Victoria's strategy statement, Ecotourism A Natural Strength for Victoria, was prepared by the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources and adopted in 1992.54 Regional tourist strategies, developed in line with the State strategy, also emphasise nature-based tourism and ecotourism. For example, the Mallee Tourism and Recreation Strategy gives high priority to interpretation, education and conservation. 55
Ecotourism and nature-based tourism are identified in the Tourism Victoria Business Plan 1997-2001 as areas that would benefit from further development.56 This Plan claims that:
Victoria has yet to fully capitalise on the State's natural attractions in terms of tourism. Other States, especially the Northern Territory and Tasmania, have successfully positioned themselves as combining world class natural attractions with tourism related facilities. This has been achieved whilst maintaining an appropriate balance between conservation and development. Victoria must do the same.
Tourism Victoria is currently preparing a Nature Based Tourism Action Plan in response to requirements of the Tourism Victoria Business Plan.
A National Ecosystem Accreditation Program was established in 1997. It was the first such program in the world.57 Currently about 175 ecotourism programs are accredited around Australia under the scheme. The program was developed in response to the desires of the industry to maintain and improve its standards and reputation. Accreditation relies on meeting a range of defined criteria as measured through self-assessment, referee reports and annual review.
Parks Victoria, the manager of the greater majority of the State's natural lands (including all national and State parks), recognises the value of such accreditation schemes. Non-accredited operators within its parks must obtain licences annually, whereas accredited operators are being offered longer-term licences. 58
Victorian Attractions
Victoria has many native-species attractions that are in easily accessible locations. Table 5.2 provides an indication of such attractions.
Table 5.2 Native-species-based Tourist Attractions
Location |
Native species focus |
Features |
Serendip Sanctuary |
A wild mob of eastern grey kangaroos, water birds and emus |
Sightings can be guaranteed; natural populations - enthusiastic management |
Brisbane Ranges |
Koalas |
In natural conditions in Victoria (elsewhere in Australia populations are not seen in the wild). |
Central Highlands |
Mountain ash |
The magnificence of these tall forests is impressive to visitors not used to them |
Grampians and Little Desert |
Wildflowers and birds, especially the wide diversity of parrots |
Sighting assured, in fine scenery |
Various, such as Melbourne's parks and gardens |
Arboreal mammals such as possums and gliders |
High diversity and sightings assured on night tour |
Werribee, Western Port, East Gippsland |
Water birds |
High diversity close to other attractions |
Port Phillip Bay |
Water birds, dolphins, sea lions, penguins |
Diversity within a day tour |
Alpine area |
Alpine flora |
Available only in Victoria, Tasmania and southern NSW. Victoria has such attractions close to the State capital |
Source: Victorian Tourism Operators Association.59
Public Land Activity
Much of the nature-based tourism in Victoria is based on public lands - simply because the greater majority of remnant natural habitat in this State is located on such land.
Since December 1996, Parks Victoria has had the responsibility for the management of the greater majority of Victoria's national, wilderness, State and coastal parks and nature conservation reserves as well as an array of other Crown Reserves in Victoria. These cover 3.75 million hectares or 16 per cent of Victoria and represent most of the main ecosystems in the State.
There were over 32 million visits to lands managed by Parks Victoria in 1997-98 and a similar number in 1998-99. Almost 12 million of these visits were to metropolitan parks and 12.3 million to protected non-urban parks.60 People who visit these areas have indicated that they do so to find relatively undisturbed areas. They tend to oppose elaborate developments such as accommodation in national parks. 61
A wide range of interpretive services is provided by Parks Victoria and its contractors. Native species feature prominently in these services. They include literature, activities and conducted visitor tours. For some parks and particular activities the importance of native species is clear.62 Examples such as possum spotting in Jells Park, the kangaroo-viewing trail at Cardinia Reservoir, cruises incorporating observation of the little penguin colony at St Kilda Breakwater, demonstrate that observation of native species is important in popular recreational parks as well as in national parks.63
Three hundred and seventy three tour operators were permitted to use areas managed by Parks Victoria in 1997-98. They offered 550 activities in national parks and forested areas - including bushwalking and cycling, as well as adventure-based sports such as abseiling, rock climbing and rafting. The presence of native species contributes to the enjoyment of such activities, but to an unknown extent.
Education, as well as recreation, is an important function of these parks. This is provided for schools and the community.
Private Land Habitat and Tourism
There is a growing interest in conserving remnant habitats on private land and a growth of nature-based tourism on private properties.64 Approximately two-thirds of Victoria is held under private tenure and used for various forms of agriculture. Consequently, protection of remnant vegetation on this land is important and can contribute to the attraction of an area for tourists. Even where native vegetation on private land is not used directly for tourism it makes an important contribution by extending wildlife habitats. Where protection of natural areas on private land is assured, tourist investment may be encouraged.65
Preece et al. recommend:
A national system of NBE [nature-based tourism and ecotourism] for private lands with high conservation values and sympathetic managers/owners who wish to develop a tourism enterprise. Part of the revenue from such enterprises would go towards managing the private reserve. Land covered by such agreements would be given support for: the rehabilitation of land, ... establishment of native vegetation corridors, ... technical support; development of a monitoring and reporting program; ... and the integration of data into national park and national monitoring databases. In addition, assistance should be given for the development of NBE enterprises. Such assistance would include business planning, training, product development and marketing.66
Industry Strengths
Victoria has a well-developed tourist sector and can offer many attractions within a relatively small area. Given recent research indicating the "enormous potential for the development of ecotourism among Australian residents",67 and the increasing trend towards short-break tourism,68 Victoria is well placed to capitalise on these trends.
The nature-based tourism industry sector now has a large number of participants, and strong industry organisations such as the Victorian Tourism Operators Association and Tourism Training Victoria provide a solid base to develop markets.
Though Victoria has yet to identify many of its natural attractions as tourist destinations, there is the potential to introduce new attractions in the future and this reduces the risk of over-reliance on too few features.69 Key programs and locations for development identified by Tourism Victoria include southern Port Phillip Bay, Phillip Island, the Grampians and East Gippsland. In each of these regions wildlife and (for the Grampians particularly) native flowers are essential to the total experience. 70
The development of strategy and action plans by Tourism Victoria and the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, and accreditation and training programs, will provide increasingly strong foundations for the growth of nature-based tourism and ecotourism. Parks Victoria is already considered to be "one of the most advanced protection area managers in licensing tourism operators".71
One of the advantages for the Victorian economy of tourism, particularly nature-based tourism and ecotourism, is that it is labour intensive and can direct returns to regional areas.72
Tourism generally, as well as nature-based tourism specifically, is a substantial user of natural areas and native species. It has the potential for sustainable use of these resources and can, if appropriately managed, provide incentives for their protection. In addition, ecotourism is playing an important role by leading tourism more generally in the direction of ecological sustainability.73
Individual tourism operators may find difficulty in reconciling their immediate business requirements with the longer term care of the shared public resource. Consequently ecotourism that is unregulated may not necessarily be sustainable.74 On the other hand, well-regulated, planned and managed nature-based tourism and ecotourism can provide the following on-going social and economic benefits:
i) rationale and resources for conservation of natural and cultural areas;
j) fostering of a broad conservation ethic;
k) regional and national economic gain;
l) regional employment and skills development;
m) revitalising of local communities; and
n) local infrastructure and service development.75
Industry Challenges
No Victorian location that features native plants or animals rates in the twenty most popular tourist destinations in Australia.76 Destinations chosen by international visitors are currently highly concentrated in NSW and Queensland. Victoria is also competing with other countries in attracting international visitors to its natural areas and wildlife, some of which have very well developed products based on high profile national parks and reserve systems.77
The visible success of a few major tourism destinations has encouraged unrealistic expectations of the industry.78 Small tourist operators may offer high quality experiences but have limited marketing resources.79 Moreover, most operators currently involved with nature-based tourism cannot be regarded as ecotourism operators - they have merely identified a lucrative market and are primarily focused on profits.80
For nature-based and ecotourism where group sizes are small, profit margins are tight and the industry fragmented.81 Financially marginal operators (such as those developing businesses funded by retirement packages) may drive down returns to other operators. An additional factor that operators need to address is safety. Visitors to unfamiliar areas may well face hazards with which they are unfamiliar. Their safety is a legal, economic and moral responsibility of tour operators. During its study tours the Committee was made aware of the problems posed by irregular clientele and the spasmodic employment it provided in nature-based tourism.
To date Victoria's nature-based tourism has focussed on a small number of species. Such a narrow focus involves a limited experience and high risks - interest in a species can flag or the population of the favoured species may decline.82
As with any other industry, returns depend on appropriate market development. This must relate to what the potential customer wants. The need to consider the client is nowhere more clear, or more difficult to manage, than with native-species-based tourism, where the clients tend to be both demanding and clear about what they want.83
The development of opportunities in nature-based tourism is also hampered by deficiencies in information and training.84 Major research initiatives (most notably the research undertaken by the Bureau of Tourism Research) tends to be focussed on the demand side - there is very little research on the adequacy of supply.85 Even basic information on the size, economic contribution and impacts of the tourist industry may be difficult to obtain, partly due to a lack of precision in the definition of tourism.86 For example, tourism is not identified as an industry by the Australian Bureau of Statistics' data-collection process.87
Another issue, affecting operators who work across State boundaries in particular, is the great variability of lease, licensing and permit requirements between States.88
While tourist activities do not directly `consume' plants or animals, they are not without impact.89 Impacts may arise from mere presence of the tourists themselves to those arising from the construction and operation of facilities supporting tourist activity. For tourist activities to be sustainable, these impacts should either not exceed the self-sustaining capacity of the ecosystem or be subject to management inputs that ensure that the natural resource base is maintained. While all relevant tourism strategies support the principle of ecologically sustainable development, the translation of these strategies into practice is often not evident.90 Visitors may espouse an intellectual belief in sustainability, but behave with less than desirable care when relaxed on holiday.91
While tourist operators often rely on well maintained parks and nature reserves, the funding of such maintenance has been found, worldwide, often to be inadequate.92
