While the consumption of native plants is intrinsically linked with the traditional Aboriginal lifestyle, and pioneering European settlers experimented with a limited range of native plant foods,61 it is only since the mid-1980s that the commercial bushfood industry has become established.
Until recently most bushfoods have been obtained from tropical and arid/semi-arid environments. Wild harvesting from public lands under licence is the most common form of primary production, though to a lesser extent than in the past; economic pressures are moving the industry towards plantation production.62 Wild-harvesting can provide a useful economic activity for remote Aboriginal communities.
Production of foods based on the plants of the temperate climates of Victoria has only been developed in the past few years, although producers in Victoria now grow an array of such species. The initial development was based on wild-harvesting, with the emphasis now on cultivation for production.
The farmgate gross value of the industry in 1995-96 was estimated to be $10-12 million.63 Raw materials are produced in all Australian States. The main bushfoods produced, as measured by annual tonnage of raw produce (1995-96 figures), were wattle seed (6 tonnes), bush tomatoes (5 tonnes), and quandong (5 tonnes).64
The raw materials used by the industry include fruit and berries, nuts, leaves and seeds. These are sold in fresh, frozen, dried and roasted form. Special preparation may be needed to make good use of some of these foods.65
Food plants include many suited for use as highly flavoured herbs, spices and flavourings. While these are currently the predominant products, others are used as vegetables and fruits. Value-added products include chutneys, sauces, syrups and cordials, oils and dressings, pasta, pesto, pate, and jams and marmalades. The marketing emphasis has moved away from `bush tucker' to a gourmet food image.
The industry consists of a number of sectors:
a) producers, including wild-harvesters and plantation based;
b) processors;
c) the restaurant trade and (specialist) retailers.
Vertically integrated operations as well as single-purpose cottage-industry-scale businesses operate. There is little wholesale trade and some nursery operations.
Primary production methods include:
a) wild harvesting - permitted under licence on private and Crown lands;
b) `passive farming' - using managed wild stands to sustain and increase yield;
c) cultivation using mixed species and genetic stock; and
d) conventional cultivation - with single-species stands of cultivars selected for quality, yield and consistent response to horticultural methods, including mechanical harvesting.66
Victoria has an active bushfood producers' organisation, the Southern Bushfood Association. While it has some 180 members across southern Australia,67 only 20 or so are commercial growers and collectors. Currently the key production area in Victoria is in South Gippsland, but producers are now establishing in the north-east of the State and elsewhere. The bushfood industry in Victoria is estimated to be worth $1m annually and is steadily growing.68
The Macadamia tree (Macadamia integrifolia) is the most widely grown Australian plant used for food - both in Australia and overseas. Indeed macadamia nuts are now considered a mainstream agricultural product rather than a bushfood.
The largest commercial plantations of other Australian bushfoods currently comprise, in order of the number of plantings:69
a) quandong - the fruit of Santalum acuminatum;
b) bush tomatoes - the fruit of Solanum centrale;
c) muntries - the fruit of Kunzea pomifera;
d) lemon aspera - the fruit of Acronychia acidula; and
e) lemon myrtle - leaf and oil of Backhousia citriodora.
Of these, only two are currently grown in Victoria (quandong and muntries). A wide array of other species is grown in plantations of smaller commercial or potentially commercial size. Within Victoria these include:
a) wattle seed - seeds of Acacia spp;
b) mountain pepper - leaves and, to a lesser extent, fruit of Tasmannia lanceolata;
c) warrigal greens - leaves of New Zealand Spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides);
d) mints - leaves of, for example, Prostanthera rotundifolia and Mentha australis;
e) aniseed myrtle (Backhousia citriodora) - for flavouring; and
f) cider gum (Eucalyptus gunnii) - its sap is used as a sweet syrup similar to maple syrup (being manufactured near Mansfield).
Such species are cultivated as mono-crops or as mixed-species plantings. The Committee inspected the property of Tarnuk Bushfood and Flowers. This producer has used permaculture principles to establish plantings of an assemblage of species that provide overstorey, understorey and ground cover, which they have found facilitates the control of pests and diseases and soil improvement - as well as providing a diversity of products for harvest. They currently produce products from ten different species.
The responses to a questionnaire organised by the Victorian-based Southern Bushfood Network in 1996 indicated that its members were growing or proposing to grow over 50 different species.70 Even so, this is only a very small part of the potential:
Only recently has there been any attempt to explore the potential of these species [that is the one-third of Victorian plants used by the Aboriginal community in the past] for modern use, and this has often been by dedicated amateurs.71
While the record of traditional Aboriginal use is inevitably incomplete, recent research into historical records and retained traditional knowledge, by individuals such as Dr Beth Gott, an ethnobotanist from Monash University, has indicated that a huge array of Australian plants are potentially edible. Some 900 plants are known to have been used by Aboriginal people up to the 1830s.72 Moreover, it is also known that not all edible foods were used (for instance products made palatable by boiling were not used, as traditional Aboriginal culture did not have the technology to boil food).73
Processing of Bushfoods
While there was effectively no processing of Australian bushfoods in Victoria some 10 years ago, there is now an array of businesses involved in the sector. These include:
a) confectioners;
b) pasta manufacturers;
c) makers of gourmet herbs, savoury sauces, conserves, jellies, jams, salsa and pesto;
d) makers of flavoured biscuits and breads; and
e) makers of flavourings for drinks.74
The Committee had the opportunity to visit a number of businesses that process bushfoods. One of these, Robins Bush Foods, only produces foods derived from Australian native plants and has been a pioneer in the industry. It has been in business since 1988. The company produces a range of jams, jellies, chutneys, relishes, pickles and syrups from raw material obtained from around Australia, from both wild-harvest (including that obtained from remote Aboriginal communities) and plantation sources. Their products are sold in supermarkets and delicatessens, and to the food service industry - restaurants and internationally focussed resorts and hotels and airlines. They export to supermarkets such as Sainsburys in the United Kingdom. To assist in the development of a market for their product, they have published recipe books, undertake a range of promotions and, more recently, place great emphasis on the design of labels, description of products and style of container.
Other processors use bushfoods as an ancillary line. The Committee inspected the factory of Casalare Specialty Pastas, a small family business based in South Gippsland. The business produces specialist pastas and has recently developed five lines under the `Bush Pasta' label. Production has grown steadily, in line with market development. The proprietors consider that the rural-town location has reduced all costs except for freight. It is also well located with respect to supplies of raw bushfood product.
Use of bushfoods in the restaurant trade is primarily in specialised businesses. One such business is the Flamin' Bull and Bush Restaurant in Warragul, which was visited by the Committee. The business was established in 1990 and offers a menu of overtly Australian fare. It employs koori staff and actively involves them in program development. Bushfoods are obtained from interstate and locally (the latter mainly fish, emu and some vegetables). The proprietors plan to open new outlets under franchise and there is interest by others in obtaining supplies of its in-house products, such as sauces made to traditional Aboriginal recipes using native plant ingredients.
Tourist operators and specialist food retailers, such as those based in international airports, also supply and sell bushfoods.
While in South Australia, the Committee had the opportunity to talk to the proprietor of Australian Native Produce Industries. This company operates as a vertically integrated business. The company focuses on approximately 14 native species, using mostly patented plant varieties. To assure reliability of supply it has recently established its own nursery operation (which was visited by the Committee). The business seeks experienced growers and supplies them with material. The resultant crop is then purchased by the company.
Industry Strengths
There is considerable interest within the horticultural and agricultural community in producing bushfoods, and plantation development is leading to increased quality and quantity. This, in turn, is increasing demand.75 Bushfood plantations also offer improved land management, as many plants are perennial (and thus require less tillage and enhance retention of organic matter) and are acclimatised to the local environment (and consequently may be less prone to pest damage). The industry offers opportunities for farmers to diversify.
From a manufacturer and retail perspective, bushfoods have a number of advantages over mainstream foods. It is claimed that they offer "uniquely different flavours" and "excellent nutritional qualities",76 the latter of particular relevance in the current consumer market where health and nutrition are important. The industry is also well positioned to capitalise on Australia's tourism and growing `fine foods' reputation. 77
Not only is there interest and potential in the industry, but it has experienced real growth. The Southern Bushfood Association noted that in Victoria:
In the past three to five years there has been a significant growth in the number of individuals and groups involved [in Australian native foods] ranging from harvesting, marketing, educating and training, involvement in the horticultural industry, food research and plant development and so forth.78
Victorian producers are close to major markets and produce a niche product that can command premium prices.
Industry Challenges
According to Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation research,79 and confirmed in the Committee's discussions with some of the Victorian operators, key issues include the need to reduce production costs, maintain quality standards and ensure reliability of supply.
The Corporation's research also indicated that "at present [1998] the industry is poorly developed, [and] businesses are generally under-capitalised ...".80 Agronomic information is limited, as is knowledge of post-harvest procedure. Production and harvesting is labour intensive (there is limited mechanical harvesting), resulting in high labour costs, and yield and quality are restricted by limited genetic development of plant material.81 From the manufacturers and retail perspective, key issues are the inconsistency of supply and product quality, high cost of raw product and lack of identified consumer demand.82
Wild-harvesting, in particular, involves uncertainty of supply and quality, and high harvest and freight costs. Conventional cultivation can assist in overcoming these problems. Consequently the pressure is to move from wild-harvesting to conventional cultivation.83 However, it has been difficult to interest mainstream farmers in growing these crops and hobby farmers tend to be unable to provide reliable and adequate supplies.84
The requirements of conventional cultivation and harvesting methods may restrict the species that can readily be used. Monocultures incur disease and pest problems, as well as vulnerability to fluctuating prices for products. These factors affect native species as much as any other crop. It has been suggested that mixed-species cultivation, by mirroring natural ecosystems, may overcome some of these problems, as well as reduce land degradation. Testing methods to manage such systems within the context of modern agricultural production is in a very rudimentary stage.85
Market development would be assisted if nutritional and toxicological information were available for both existing and potential food species. Limited analyses have been undertaken but more are needed.86 These have shown a number of species to have high nutritional value; for instance some of the purslanes (Portulaca spp.), love-grass (Eragrostis spp.) and kurrajongs (Brachychiton spp.) have excellent protein and fibre contents. Some with food potential require treatment to remove toxins before they can be used.
A number of the key commercial species are briefly reviewed below.
Macadamia Nuts (a potential Victorian sector)
As noted above, the macadamia nut is the most successful native Australian plant used for food production. While it is a rainforest species, it has been grown successfully in areas with climatic conditions similar to those found in parts of Victoria.
The two species of macadamia that are grown for food were originally found in rainforest areas on the border of Queensland and New South Wales. The food value of macadamia nuts was known in Australia from an early time - Aboriginal people used them as a traditional food and Australian botanists were urging their development in 1900.87
Macadamia was, however, first developed as a crop in Hawaii, 70 years before it was established in Australia.88 Even today, many of the cultivars grown in Australia come from the USA. The species is now an established agricultural crop around the world. It is grown commercially in southern Africa, central America, Brazil and New Zealand, with Hawaii still the largest commercial producer in the world.89
The primary product of the plant is the nut, which is eaten raw or roasted, or as an ingredient in bakery products. It is also used to produce a cooking oil (as well as cosmetics and soaps).
In 1991-92 the gross value of the Australian macadamia industry was $23,605,000, with growth in gross production of $621,000 in that year. It is an export-oriented industry.90 Most of the Australian production was exported (approximately 80 per cent) until a world price downturn led to further development of the domestic market.91
Currently macadamia nuts are not grown in Victoria. They are grown in the Riverland of South Australia under irrigation and, given the similarity of climate, could also be grown in the north-west of Victoria.
Sector Strengths and Challenges
Macadamia nuts have perhaps the longest period of development of Australian bushfoods and enjoy established markets.
In Australia, great variation in growing conditions and pests have made it desirable to develop a range of cultivars for specific conditions. This is costly but has proved effective. Initial large capital outlays and the long payback period of ten or more years (the length of time to produce mature yields) have not proved to be a disincentive to this industry.92
Recent overproduction led to some price problems but subsequently to greater cooperation and market development. The current growth pattern of the industry suggests that it is still in a growth phase. 93
Quandongs
Quandongs (Santalum acuminatum), also known as the desert or native peach, are one of the main bushfoods currently produced in Australia.
They are considered by many to have a tart but delicious flavour. The fruit is rich in vitamin C, while the seed provides a protein source and high oil content. Aboriginal people use the fruit and seed as food and the seed for medicinal purposes; they also use the wood.94 "Early settlers gathered the fruits for pies, jellies and jams."95 Such foods remain a major end-product of the fruit.
Nationally the industry is worth approximately $250 million.96 As at 1997, commercial plantings of quandong were approximately 40,000 to 50,000 plants.97 Over half are in South Australia, with the other major area of production being in the Broken Hill region of New South Wales. Plantings are mostly between one and four years old.98 Plants may be grown from seedlings or grafted stock.
An orchard has been established near Mildura and others in Victoria are in the developmental stage.99
In recent years producers have been successful in developing a market for the quandong. For instance, quandong-based jams are now sold in Victorian supermarkets, although still only as a premium product.
The plant is very tolerant of soil salinity, but difficult to grow from seed.100 While the full climatic range in which quandongs can be grown successfully is not known, they are established in South Australia in conditions similar to those of northern Victoria.
Wattle Seed
Aboriginal people used wattle seed as an important source of protein.101 Seeds were ground into a paste, roasted or eaten raw. Within Victoria, the seeds of at least five species of acacia were used for food - silver wattle (Acacia dealbata), coast wattle (Acacia longifolia var. sophorae), golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha), eumong (Acacia stenophylla), and varnish wattle (Acacia verniciflua ).102
While an array of products has been commercially produced from acacia species for many years, the commercial production of seed for use in processed foods is a comparatively new use.
Culinary uses of wattle seed include as flavouring agents (for example, in sauces, mustards and seasonings), as beverages (using ground and roasted seeds as a coffee substitute or as flavourings for teas), as flour (for bread, biscuits and pasta) and as edible oils.103 As well as being high in protein, the high level of dietary fibre is an added advantage in modern cuisine.
Extracted oil may also be used in cosmetics, and the use of wattle seed in stock mixtures has been proposed.
Research on the potential of wattles as a source of human food is pursued through a number of individuals and groups. A major review of species with particular potential in southern Australia has recently been published. Species of wattle are also being tested overseas as potential food sources; for instance, four species are being tested in Niger, West Africa.104
The Australian review, which was undertaken by scientists from CSIRO and the Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management, identified 47 wattle species with potential for cultivation (in semi-arid areas of Australia).105 Of the 47 species identified in this review, 18 were regarded as having the greatest potential. One of these, golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha), is widespread in the wild in Victoria. All are found in climates similar to that in the north-west part of the State.
Currently the most important species used by the Australian bushfood industry is bramble wattle (Acacia victoriae). Not only do its seeds have good nutritional value, but wild populations have wide adaptability, it is easily propagated from seed, it grows rapidly, can be regenerated by coppicing (that is cutting the tree trunk to encourage growth of new stems) and the seed is easily harvested.106 It occurs naturally in Victoria only in the far north-west of the State, and the Committee is not aware of any Victorian harvesting or cultivation.
Other, higher rainfall reliant, species are currently harvested in Victoria. The seed of the coast wattle (Acacia longifolia var. sophorae) is wild-harvested in coastal regions of western Victoria.107 It is used in a diversity of products such as pasta, sauces and beverages. Self-seeded populations of Cootamundra wattle (Acacia baileyana), a species introduced into Victoria from New South Wales, are also harvested, in the Grampians area. It is also being cultivated, as are lightwood (Acacia implexa), golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha), and wirilda (Acacia retinoides).108 One of Victoria's (and indeed Australia's) larger growers currently produces about 0.25 to 0.5 tonnes of wattle seed per year.109 Yields obtainable from mature wild plants may take five or more years to be produced.110
The Committee had the opportunity to visit cultivated plantings of wattle in the Grampians area (Barry Clugston's property) as well as in Gippsland (Tarnuk Bushfoods), where wirilda (Acacia retinoides) is grown as part of a mixed-species planting being developed in accordance with permaculture principles.
Most seed produced in Victoria is sold to local markets - for use in restaurants or bushfood production. Some is exported.
Strengths of the Sector
Many species of wattle produce seed with high potential as a food source, although, at present, the market does not differentiate between the seeds of the various species harvested. Victorian producers are close to major markets and the production of what is currently a niche product appears profitable. Markets are gradually growing.
Wild resources are abundant, they grow readily and many species can easily be cultivated. Wattles bear their pods at the extremities of the plant, so simple adaptation of shaking methods used to harvest some species of nuts could be used to harvest pods.111 Seeds are easily separated from pods by mechanical means. Formal planting in rows facilitates cultivation and harvesting, and the use of drip watering is successful, with harvesting possible from plantings at three or more years of age.
The abundance of acacias in natural stands has reduced the immediate incentive to cultivate them, but cultivation facilitates mechanical harvesting.
One of the values of acacias for plantation production is that they provide other benefits. They can be used as stock food, for fuel and fine timber, as wind-breaks and for land rehabilitation. They can easily be grown by direct seeding and have low nutrient requirements. Being legumes, they can fix their own nitrogen.112
Some species are considered environmental weeds by many - for instance coast wattle (Acacia longiflora var. sophorae) and Cootamundra wattle (Acacia baileyana). Harvesting might provide a useful check to their populations,113 although seed dispersal to adjoining areas is still likely to occur.
Challenges Facing the Sector
Developing wattle species for use in the food industry will require a significant input of research. In particular, if the resource is to compete with more mainstream sources of flour and other products, nutritional and toxicological studies are needed. Given the great diversity between and within species, selection and development of silvicultural and processing methods will assist in obtaining reliable harvests of consistent products.114 At present there is little coordination of the activities and knowledge of individual growers.
While production is currently responsive to market trends and involves a small number of, in effect, niche producers, there is potential to oversupply the market. A recent research paper, by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation,115 noted that the demand by processors in 1995-96 was around 6 tonnes - an amount that, on a potential yield of 1.25 tonnes per hectare, could be readily supplied from a cultivated area of 5 hectares. Thus potential to saturate the market is high.
The weed potential of species selected for cultivation will also need to be assessed. Coast wattle (Acacia longifolia), golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha) and several other wattle species have proved aggressive in their growth when translocated.
Muntries
Muntries (Kunzea pomifera) grows wild in Victoria and has also been successfully grown under cultivation. Its berries, known as muntries (muntries is the Aboriginal name for the plant),116 are a small, crunchy berry with a taste similar to dried (Granny Smith) apples.117 Their natural distribution extends across the coast and sandy and limestone areas of western Victoria and south-eastern South Australia.118 They were a popular food of Kooris, being eaten raw or beaten into cakes and dried and stored.119
Currently muntries are used mainly in sauces and chutneys. They could also be used to compliment salads or desserts, or in place of apple in pies or muffins. Existing growers supply product in fresh, frozen and dried forms. 120
Unlike the major Australian bushfoods, muntries occur naturally in Victoria. Consequently the soils and climate of Victoria suit their cultivation. The plant takes two to three years to reach maturity.121
In recent years this natural advantage has been enhanced by a number of techniques. Large-fruiting forms have been selected and propagated from cuttings, with upright forms also sought to permit easier harvesting of the fruit. Grafting onto rootstock of other species of kunzea that are known to grow on heavier soils has also been tested.122
There is, however, comparatively little interest currently shown in this product by mainstream manufacturers.123
Mountain Pepper
The leaves of the mountain pepper (Tasmannia lanceolata) have a very intense, spicy flavour and can be used as a herb in a variety of products. The berries also have a strong flavour and, if dried, can be used in pepper grinders. The leaves also have essential-oil properties.124
The mountain pepper occurs naturally in Victoria, as well as in Tasmania and New South Wales. Until recently most of the material harvested was obtained from wild sources. Cultivation enables growers to be less reliant on the vagaries of the wild resource, and better able to provide regular and quality product to restaurants, manufacturers and other markets.
Cultivation occurs in the Gippsland area, including at Tarnuk Bushfoods, a property visited by the Committee, and in the north-east of the State in localities such as Mansfield.
Warrigal Greens
Warrigal greens (Tetragonia tetragonioides) is also known as New Zealand spinach. The development of a bushfood product based on its leaf has led to the promotion of the name Warrigal greens. The leaf is the product sold fresh. It is primarily used as a salad vegetable.
Like the mountain pepper, Warrigal greens occurs naturally in Victoria. Consequently the soils and climate of Victoria suit its cultivation. Cultivated plants produce a yield equivalent to that of the mature wild plant when a year old.
The leaf has a high oxalate content which, if consumed in large quantities, can be toxic. It requires removal by blanching in boiling water before the leaf is suitable for human consumption, although recent research has shown that lower levels occur in older plants. Warrigal greens are also suited to being grown using hydroponic techniques.125
Mainstream manufacturers have shown little interest in this product to date.126
